Anatomy book (1/2)Japan's first translated anatomy book

In the mid-Edo period, Japan's first fully-fledged translated medical book appeared. This was Kaitai Shinsho, a translation of the Dutch anatomical book Tafel Anatomie, published in 1774. Kaitai Shinsho is a familiar historical project, but it was translated by Sugita Genpaku, Maeno Ryotaku and others over a period of nearly four years. In this article, we will provide an easy-to-understand explanation of Kaitai Shinsho, which marks the 250th anniversary of its publication this year.

What is "Kaitai Shinsho"?

Kaitai Shinsho was the first fully translated medical book in Japan, published in 1774. It was also the first proper translation of a Western book, and had a huge impact on the medical world, which had previously been centered on Chinese medicine.

The original book was the anatomical book "Anatomische Tabellen" (1722) by German physician Johan Adam Krums, which was translated into Dutch by Dutch physician Gerard Dichten as "Ontleedkundige tafelen" (1734). In other words, the book was a translation of the original Dutch version into Japanese.

Kaitai Shinsho is made up of five volumes in total, four volumes of the main text and one volume of anatomical illustrations, which were copied by the artist Odano Naotake, who learned Western painting from Hiraga Gennai. The main text is written in classical Chinese, and was translated primarily by Sugita Genpaku and Maeno Ryotaku, who was fluent in Dutch. Dutch anatomical books and other sources were also used as references during the translation.

The text is annotated with the words "When pressed by the wing (Genpaku Sugita)," and Genpaku added his own annotations from the perspective of a doctor. The enormous amount of annotations in the original were omitted in Kaitai Shinsho, presumably due to consideration of the translation time.

The first volume is a general overview of anatomy, covering the body's shape, names, elements, skeleton and joints. The second volume covers the head, hair, lips, brain and nerves, eyes, ears, nose and tongue. The third volume covers the chest, diaphragm, lungs, heart, arteries and veins, portal vein, abdomen, stomach and intestines, mesentery and lacteal ducts and pancreas. The fourth volume covers the spleen, liver, gallbladder, kidneys, bladder, reproductive organs, pregnancy and muscles.

Key figures in Kaitai Shinsho: Genpaku Sugita and Ryotaku Maeno

Kaitai Shinsho was a joint effort by several Dutch scholars and doctors, but the most famous translator is Sugita Genpaku. Sugita Genpaku was born in Edo in 1733 (the 18th year of the Kyoho era) as the third son of Sugita Hosen, a doctor in the Obama domain of Wakasa Province (present-day Obama City, Fukui Prefecture, etc.). He studied medicine in Edo, and in 1753 (the 3rd year of the Horeki era) he worked as a doctor at the upper residence of the Obama domain. He then opened a local practice in Nihonbashi while working as a doctor for the Obama domain. It seems that from this time he had contact with Dutch scholars such as Hiraga Gennai. In 1765 (the 2nd year of the Meiwa era), he became the Obama domain's internal physician.

Meanwhile, another well-known translator, Maeno Ryotaku, was born as the son of a feudal lord stationed in Edo in the Fukuoka domain (Fukuoka Prefecture), but lost his parents at a young age and was raised by Miyata Zenza, a doctor in the Yodo domain (Fushimi Ward, Kyoto City, Kyoto Prefecture). He was later adopted by the Maeno family of the Nakatsu domain (Nakatsu City, Oita Prefecture, etc.) and became a doctor for the domain. Ryotaku began studying Dutch studies around 1743 (Kanpo 2), and in his later years he studied under Aoki Konyo. He was devoted to Dutch studies, and from 1769 (Meiwa 6) to 1770 (Meiwa 7), he persuaded the feudal lord to grant him permission to study in Nagasaki, where he studied Dutch. It was during this time that Ryotaku came across the book "Tabulae Anatomicae."

Background of Kaitai Shinsho: Tokugawa Yoshimune and Dutch Studies

The Edo period has a strong image of being a period of national isolation, but even during that time trade with the Netherlands, China, Korea, and the Ainu continued, and trade with the Netherlands in particular took place through Dejima in Nagasaki. With Christianity banned, the Netherlands, a Protestant country that had a policy of separating trade from missionary work, was the only Western country that was allowed to trade.

At the time Kaitai Shinsho was written, the 8th Shogun, Tokugawa Yoshimune, was the Shogun. Yoshimune was originally very interested in practical sciences such as astronomy, medicine, and geography, and was deeply interested in Western technology and knowledge. In the era before Yoshimune, Arai Hakuseki wrote the research book Seiyo Kibun and the world geography book Sairan Igen, based on his interrogations of the Italian missionary Giovanni Battista Sidotti, and it is said that Yoshimune's interest in the West deepened after reading these books.

In 1720, Yoshimune relaxed the restrictions on imports of Western books translated from Chinese that were not related to Christianity. He also had Confucian scholar Aoki Konyo, famous for popularizing sweet potatoes, and botanist Noro Genjo study Dutch. Aoki Konyo wrote introductory books on Dutch, including "Dutch Translation," "Dutch Literature Translation," and "A Brief Study of Dutch Characters." These efforts led to the promotion of Dutch studies.

Dutch scholars began to have contact with the Dutch in Nagasaki, as well as the captain and interpreter of the Dutch trading post at Dejima who came to Edo on their way to the capital. As Dutch studies spread, books written in Dutch began to be actively translated. Kaitai Shinsho can be said to be one of the first books to do so.

Why was Kaitai Shinsho published? The determination of Genpaku Sugita and others

First of all, why did "New Anatomy" end up being published? Sugita Genpaku got hold of "New Anatomy" through Nakagawa Junan, a doctor and scholar of Dutch studies. Junan was shown two books, "Tabulae Anatomiae" and "Casparys Anatomiae (New Anatomy)" by the captains who came to Edo in 1770, and showed them to his colleague Sugita Genpaku.

Genpaku was amazed by the detail of the anatomical illustrations and wanted to have them for himself, but did not have the funds, so he asked the Obama Domain to somehow purchase them for him. According to his later memoirs, "Rangaku Kotohajime," Genpaku consulted with the chief retainer Oka Shinzaemon, and with the help of the Confucian scholar Kura Kozaemon, he was able to successfully purchase them. Incidentally, Genpaku later also obtained "Casparus Anatomia (New Anatomy)," which he used as a reference when translating "Kaitai Shinsho."

In March of the same year, Genpaku got the chance to attend an autopsy, something he had long hoped to do. He received a call from a shogunate official informing him that an autopsy would be performed on a criminal's body at Kozukahara execution grounds (Minamisenju, Arakawa Ward, Tokyo). Genpaku invited Nakagawa Junan and Maeno Ryotaku to join him. Genpaku brought along his copy of "Tabulae Anatomicae," but it turned out that Ryotaku also had a copy that he had acquired in Nagasaki, and the three hit it off.

While attending autopsies, the three men compared the details of the dissections with those in "Tabulae Anatomicae." Unlike previous Chinese medical books, the Dutch anatomical book was so accurate. The three men were impressed by the precision of the illustrations, but also felt a sense of crisis: as doctors, we need to know the exact appearance of the human body! They decided to translate "Tabulae Anatomicae" to benefit the Japanese medical community.

No dictionary! The translation process was extremely difficult

The day after the dissection, Sugita Genpaku and his team began the translation work at Maeno Ryotaku's house. However, at the time there were no decent Dutch dictionaries, and Genpaku barely understood any Dutch, apart from Ryotaku, who had studied Dutch to a certain extent. In "Rangaku Kotohajime," he writes, "It was as if I had set out on the ocean in a ship without a rudder; it was so vast and vast that I had nowhere to go, and I was simply astonished." It describes how Genpaku had no idea where to start.